“If we have no peace, it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other.”
― Mother Teresa

Background

Despite being a small country and the land of Lord Buddha, Nepal has fought in many wars, battles, and skirmishes. These include the Anglo-Nepalese War, the Nepalese-Tibetan War, and the First and Second Sino-Nepalese Wars. The wars involving Nepal resulted in immense loss of lives and land. Wikipedia has published long lists of several wars, conflicts, and communal riots in Nepal (Wikipedia). The Nepalese-Tibetan War (1855-1856) exhausted Nepal's finances and ultimately resulted in a peace treaty that granted Nepal diplomatic and commercial rights in Tibet. The first Sino-Nepalese War (1788-1792) ended with Nepal being the winner in this war. In the second Sino-Nepalese War (1792), Nepal lost the war. Another war was the Gurkha-Sikh War (1809) in which Nepal again faced defeat, and Nepal was victorious in the Limbuwan-Gorkha War (1771-1776).

The Democracy Demonstrations in Nepal in 1990with popular pressure, after the government forces killed more than 60 people ended only afterKing BirendraBirBikram Shah Deva declared a multiparty democracy in Nepal.After six years of this declaration, the Maoist insurgency started in 1996 against the Monarchy in Nepal.

Nepal, not only suffered from wars, and battles but also from internal coups and carnages. During the Rana regime, military officer Jung Bahadur Rana seized power in 1846, ushering in a period of hereditary rule by the Rana family. The Nepali Congress party also launched an armed uprising that ended the Rana era. Nepal also faced several ethnic riots, marked by the Hindu-Muslim, and Madhesh riots in the recent past. Nepal suffered from ethnic riots between Hindu and Muslim communities. The most serious of all was the Rautahat Hindu-Muslim riot in 1972, Nepal experienced another riot in 2005 for the reason of killing 12 Nepalese in Iraq. In 2007, riots sparked in the Kapilbastu, Rupandehi, Dang, Rautahat, and Nepalgunj districts of Nepal for various reasons.

The Maoist insurgency officially started on 13 February 1996 with an attack on a police post in Rolpa, a district in Western Nepal, by members of the Communist Party of Nepal-Maoist (CPN-Maoist). The burden of opposing the Maoists during those years fell on an undermanned, poorly armed (in some cases unarmed) civilian police force which was periodically overwhelmed and which has lost almost 1,000 officers in the conflict. Gersomy writes about the delay in mobilizing the Nepali Army: “One of the distinguishing characteristics of this conflict was the government's decision not to mobilize the Royal Nepal Army (RNA) during its first six years. (Gersony, 2003).

Shree Prasad Devkota and Navin Pandey write on the support forthe insurgency by poor people,“In the context of Nepal, the Maoist conflict found support from oppressed lower castes, portraying the insurgency as stemming from rage against a long legacy of oppression based on caste and ethnicity. Economic factors such as inequality, landlessness, and a general lack of opportunity reinforced by a complex caste system and related discriminatory patterns provided sufficient cause for the insurgency to be joined by people from different walks of life.” (Devkota, and Pandey, 2017)Since the end of the Maoist insurgency, Nepal has experienced political conflicts over the Constitution 2015, the implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), and the division of power. Eighteen years have gone by without CPA’scomplete implementation.

Maoist Insurgency and the Implementation of Comprehensive Peace Accord (CPA)

The CPA of 1996 ended the Nepalese Civil War. The accord was signed between the Government of Nepal and the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist). The agreement included provisions for rehabilitating the Maoist army, abolishing the monarchy, and establishing a Truth and Reconciliation Commission for sustainable peace. Some of the key provisions of the CPA have been partially implemented, leaving the victims' concerns unaddressed.

Both sides agreed to stop all military action and violent activities. The Maoist army was placed in temporary camps for rehabilitation and reintegration into society. The king was stripped of his political rights and his property was nationalized. A High-level Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established to investigate human rights violations and crimes against humanity. The United Nations Mission in Nepal monitored both armies. Both sides agreed to uphold international human rights laws and civil liberties, and a commission was established to help normalize the situation and provide relief and rehabilitation to victims.

A key component of the peace process was the successful management of arms and armies of the two sides of the conflict—a separate agreement governed by the Agreement on Monitoring the Management of Arms and Armies (AMMAA). The United Nations Mission in Nepal (UNMIN), with support from UNDP and other UN agencies, then led the verification of combatants in 28 cantonment sites and identified 19,602 of them as members of the Maoist army, 2,973 as minors on the date of the signing of the ceasefire on 25 May 2006, and 1,035 as late recruits. 4,008 Verified Minors and Late Recruits (VMLRs) were discharged under the AMAA.

Persistent Threats to Peace in Nepal

Although the CPA ended the decade-long insurgency and paved the way for a peaceful settlement, Nepal’s political conflict, and strong socioeconomic underpinnings through centralized administrative structure, inequality, exclusion, and identity conflict remain persistent threats to peace. The CPA’s framework for resolving these multi-faceted conflicts through several milestones it outlined is still far away. Some of these topics have been either forgotten or partially underway in the past 18 years. The successful management of arms and armies was a commendable agreement. The rebels became an integral of the mainstream political system, and a constitution was finally promulgated, though after a year's delay. There are still many outstanding issues, including providing justice to families of the victims of the conflict through a credible truth and reconciliation process. The Maoist leader Pushpa Kamal Dahal, alias, ‘Prachand’ has been reported to ask top government officials to work as per a policy of “forgive and forget” when it comes to dealing with cases from the decade-long Maoist insurgency (NeupaneGyan, 2025).PushpaKamal Dahal’sdirectivefor the ‘forget and forgive’ policy is worrisome. Such conceit to forget the pain and apathy of victims of the civil war will again divert the CPA's spirit.

Call for Good Governance

While Nepal has been successful in sidestepping any potential post-conflict political upheaval, it is important to note that many of the deep-rooted socio-economic issues that helped spark the civil war, including sharp disparities in wealth, and marginalization of caste and ethnic groups, have not been well-addressed over the past decades. Similarly, the nation’s political parties must find ways to better respond to the needs and views of the population. If people no longer believe that the democratic process will bring positive change to their lives, it can unleash forces that drive nations toward social unrest and criminal activity.

Nepal remains to ensure that development and democracy guide the country to stability and prosperity, and a shared sense of national identity and a common future. There is a need for recovery and reconstruction in all three dimensions – political, economic, and social. The overemphasis on any particular aspect such as the political dimension could further jeopardize the post-conflict situation and obstruct the way to long-lasting peace.Delivering justice to the victims of conflict remains a lingering phenomenon in Nepal. This author’s house was bombed during the conflict including others. All of us, the victims of insurgency,are still awaiting justice.

Vidhu Prakash Kayastha writes about corruption, “Nepal’s bureaucratic system is one of the most corrupt in the region. Many civil servants misuse their power to illegally acquire land, approve substandard construction projects, or issue fraudulent permits. This creates a system of patronage, where bureaucrats work hand in hand with politicians and business tycoons to siphon off public resources. For the average Nepali citizen, this means unnecessary delays in accessing essential services such as healthcare, education, and permits. As a result, the public’s trust in government institutions has severely eroded, and many view civil servants as obstacles to progress rather than public servants” (Kayastha,2025)

Diversity and Inclusive Societies

Nepal consists of more than 126 ethnic people and, 124 languages (Nepal Census 2011). Nepal is a meltingpot of diversity. The Preamble of the Constitution of Nepal is perfectly framed. It contains all the best provisions for ending all forms of discrimination. It has provisions for protecting and promoting social and cultural solidarity, tolerance, and harmony. The Constitution promises unity in diversity by recognizing the multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, multi-cultural, and diverse regional characteristics. It has also strongly pledged to build an egalitarian society founded on proportional inclusive and participatory principles to ensure economic equality, prosperity, and social justice. (Constitution of Nepal, 2015). We have everything on paper. Now, the implementation of such an ideal vision is the real dream of Nepali people.

The Constitution of Nepal (2015) also recognizes the country as a multiethnic, multi-religious, multicultural, and multilingual. “Since the end of the first CA in 2012, there has been a major reaction against inclusion and federalism among the traditional political parties, and certain parts of the media, the bureaucracy, judiciary, and civil society. Inclusion is dismissed as an external agenda, weakening Nepali sovereignty, andas nationally divisive.” (Thapa, Deepak, et.al, 2017).

This Constitutional recognition is a significant step towards promoting inclusion and diversity.The government has implemented various policies to promote social inclusion, such as the abolition of caste-based discrimination and efforts to eliminate untouchability. Nepal celebrates and preservesdiversity throughsome initiatives. The Government has promoted multiculturalism and respect for diverse cultures through education and awareness programs. This includes integrating multicultural principles into the education system and creating an inclusive learning environment. There have been efforts to ensure greater representation of marginalized communities in political processes. This includes the election of a constituent assembly and the restructuring of the state along the lines of federalism to promote inclusivity.

A report sheds light on the alarming state: “Indigenous Peoples, Madheshi, Dalits, and Muslims experience discrimination based on stigmatization of cultural identity and language, caste hierarchy and untouchability, skin tone, region, religion, and gender, and regrettably remain socially excluded in Nepal. As a result, they lag behind other non-excluded groups across various development indicators, including poverty, employment, land rights, education, health, and political representation. The 2022 Nepal Demographic Health Survey indicates that 26 percent of women aged 15-49 have no education, compared to only 8 percent of men (Phanwin Yoking, 2023). Such a gloomy state of exclusion constantlythreatens peace and harmony in Nepal.

The benefits of diversity and inclusion are not just about fairness or ethics; it is also about tapping into a wealth of different perspectives, fostering innovation, and creating a sense of belonging for everyone. The inclusive environment promotes equality, respect for human rights, and freedom, creating a peaceful society where everyone feels valued and free to contribute positively. Nepal'sGovernment is still reluctant to control rampant corruption and implement theseissues to reassure belongingness among all citizens.

The Persistent Challenges to Peace

Nepal has various challenges that can make it vulnerable to conflicts, although it has made significant progress toward stability in recent years. Nepal is home to a multitude of ethnic groups and languages. While this diversity can be a strength, it has historically led to tensions and conflicts, particularly regarding representation and resource allocation.Nepal has also experienced political turbulence since the end of its civil war in 2006, including frequent changes in government, factional struggles within political parties, and challenges in creating a stable governing coalition.Poverty, unemployment, and economic inequality can fuel discontent. Many rural areas lack access to basic services and infrastructure, which can contribute to social unrest.

As some of the peace process following the civil war has made strides, issues related to transitional justice, integrating former combatants, and addressing grievances from marginalized communities remain points of contention.Nepal's location between India and China can lead to external pressures and influence, which could complicate domestic political dynamics and provoke conflicts.

The Management of Threats

While these factors contribute to Nepal's vulnerability, it is essential to recognize that the country has a strong commitment to peacebuilding, and many actors, including civil society and international organizations, are working actively to address these issues. While these challenges remain, Nepal has the potential for continued progress toward peace and stability.Steps towards peace should be taken to prevent and mitigateconflicts, which is crucial for stability and well-being.

Encouragingdialogue between conflicting parties, and diplomatic efforts can lead to peaceful resolutions and prevent escalation. These actions will help address underlying grievances and build trust.The Government should establish early warning systems to detect potential conflicts. These systems monitor social tensions, economic disparities, and political instability. Timely intervention can prevent escalation.Investments in programs promote reconciliation, healing, and understanding among communities. Other initiatives like truth and reconciliation commissions will address historical grievances and discourage outbreaks.

Strengthening the caliber of institutions, transparency, and accountability are key to peace in the country. Efficient governance reduces corruption, ensures fair resource distribution, and promotes stability.Addressing poverty, unemployment, and inequality. On the other hand, the economic opportunities also discourage the appeal to violence and extremism.The Government should also promote peace education in schools and communities. The awareness of peacebuilding amongst citizens will improve the peace in the country. There is a need for special attention to update the security sector reform.It is pertinent that the security forces are professional, accountable, and respect human rights. A well-functioning security sector contributes to stability and progress.

Mediation and conflict resolution promote harmony in the country. We should engage neutral third parties to mediate disputes. The mediators can find common ground and facilitate agreements.Regionalcooperation is also necessary to collaborate with neighboring countries to address cross-border issues. Regionalpeace and stability will benefitall nations currently involved in the conflicts. Good governance will address the root causes of conflicts and corruption. Understandingthe underlying factors - historical grievances, identity-based conflicts, and resource scarcity will help solve long-term grievances and threats.

End Notes

Although Nepal has made speckledefforts to cultivate an inclusive society over the past decades, the prevailing traditional caste system, patriarchal norms, and religious practices continue to foster exclusionary practices against women and those belonging to lower castes and ethnic groups. In today’sinterconnected and globalized world, the importanceof diversity and inclusion is mandatory. It is not just about fairness or ethics; it is also about tapping into different perspectives, fostering innovation, and creating a sense of belongingness for everyone. In other words, diversity and inclusion make us stronger, more adaptable, and better equipped to face the challenges of the modern world.Theresa relates Buddhism to peacebuilding, “Buddhist worldview is surprisingly following the insights of peace studies in its process-oriented paradigm, its insistence on peace by peaceful means, and its holistic framework of peace, which would play a vital role in the efforts of bringing the culture of peace into existence around the world.” (Theresa, 2006).

[1]Dr. Thapa is a retired Additional Inspector General of Nepal Police

References

Constitution of Nepal, 2015

Devkota, and Pandey,2017, TRANSCEND MEDIA SERVICE » Conflict: Causes, Impacts and Post-Conflict Reconciliation in Nepal

Do and Lakshmi Iyer, Poverty, Social Divisions, and Conflict in Nepal, 2007

Gersony, 2003, ‘Sowing the Wind, History, and Dynamics of the Maoist Revolt in Nepal's Rapti Hills’

Kayastha, Vidhu Prakash, 2025,https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/index.php/news/the-merchants-of-poverty-in-nepal-678854b59c29a.html

Nepal Census, 2011

Neupane, Gyan, https://myrepublica.nagriknetwork.com, Jan 16, 2025

PhanwinYokying, https://laserpulse.org/2023/10/the-state-of-social-inclusion-in-nepal-a-study-of-time-allocation-sosin-sota

Thapa, Deepak, and Alexander Ramsbotham, Two Steps Forward, One Step Back; Nepal Peace Accord, Accord, Issue 26, 2017, p. 8

Theresa Der-Ian Yeh, International Journal of Peace Studies, Volume 11, The Way to Peace: A Buddhist PerspectiveSpring/Summer, 2006